Comprehensive Guide to Elections in India: Process, Provisions, and Types

India, the world's largest democracy, prides itself on a robust and vibrant electoral system. Rooted in its Constitution, the electoral process is designed to ensure free, fair, and impartial elections, enabling citizens to choose their representatives and shape the nation's future. This comprehensive guide delves into the intricacies of elections in India, covering constitutional provisions, the electoral process, various types of elections, landmark judgments, and contemporary challenges.

Introduction: The Cornerstone of Indian Democracy

Elections are fundamental to democratic societies, embodying the principle of "Popular Sovereignty" where the legitimacy of the government is derived from the consent of the governed. Since gaining independence in 1947, India has consistently held regular, free, and fair elections, demonstrating its unwavering commitment to democratic values. The electoral system, established by the Constitution in 1949, is a globally admired framework, despite facing ongoing challenges.

Constitutional Provisions: The Guiding Framework

Part XV of the Constitution of India (Articles 324 to 329) lays down the foundational framework for elections, establishing a sophisticated electoral system. These provisions not only create the necessary institutional framework but also safeguard the democratic principles that underpin the entire electoral process.

Key Articles and Their Significance:

• Article 324: Superintendence, Direction, and Control of Elections. This pivotal article vests the power of superintendence, direction, and control of elections in a single, independent body: the Election Commission of India (ECI). The ECI is responsible for conducting elections to:

  • The Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha).
  • State Legislatures (Assemblies and Councils).
  • The offices of the President and Vice-President of India.

  The Constitution originally provided for a single Chief Election Commissioner (CEC). However, it became a multi-member body in 1989 and then permanently in 1993, consisting of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. The President appoints the CEC and other Election Commissioners. They have a tenure of six years or until they reach 65 years of age, whichever is earlier. The CEC can only be removed in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Supreme Court judge, ensuring security of tenure and independence. Other Election Commissioners cannot be removed except on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner.

• Article 325: No Person to be Ineligible on Grounds of Religion, Race, Caste, or Sex. This article enshrines the principle of a unified electoral roll, prohibiting discrimination in voter registration based on religion, race, caste, or sex. It mandates one general electoral roll for every territorial constituency, preventing the creation of separate electorates and reinforcing the fundamental right to equality.

• Article 326: Elections to Lok Sabha and State Assemblies on the Basis of Adult Suffrage. This article democratizes the voting process by establishing elections to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies based on universal adult suffrage. The voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 years through the 61st Amendment Act of 1989. It also prohibits discrimination in voting rights except on grounds of non-residence, unsoundness of mind, crime, or corrupt/illegal electoral practices.

• Article 327: Power of Parliament to Make Provision with Respect to Elections to Legislatures. This provision empowers Parliament to enact laws concerning all matters related to elections to either House of Parliament and State Legislatures. This includes the preparation of electoral rolls, delimitation of constituencies, and other aspects of election administration.

• Article 328: Power of Legislature of a State to Make Provision with Respect to Elections to Such Legislature. This article grants State Legislatures the power to make laws regarding matters related to elections to their respective Houses, including electoral rolls and other necessary provisions for the due constitution of the House or Houses.

• Article 329: Bar to Interference by Courts in Electoral Matters. This article limits the jurisdiction of courts in electoral matters, generally barring them from interfering in the process once it has begun, except through an election petition filed after the results are declared.

Diagram: Constitutional Framework for Elections

graph TD
    A[Constitution of India] --> B{Part XV: Elections};
    B --> C[Article 324: Election Commission of India];
    C --> C1[Composition: CEC + ECs];
    C --> C2[Powers: Superintendence, Direction, Control];
    C --> C3[Scope: Parliament, State Legislatures, President, VP];
    B --> D[Article 325: Unified Electoral Roll];
    D --> D1[No discrimination: Religion, Race, Caste, Sex];
    B --> E[Article 326: Adult Suffrage];
    E --> E1[Voting Age: 18 years (61st Amendment)];
    B --> F[Article 327: Parliament's Power to Legislate];
    F --> F1[Electoral Rolls, Delimitation, etc.];
    B --> G[Article 328: State Legislature's Power to Legislate];
    G --> G1[State-specific Election Matters];
    B --> H[Article 329: Bar to Court Interference];
    H --> H1[Election Petitions only after results];

Explanation: This flowchart illustrates how Part XV of the Indian Constitution systematically establishes the electoral framework. It highlights the central role of the Election Commission (Article 324) as the independent body overseeing elections, alongside provisions ensuring universal adult suffrage (Article 326) and non-discrimination (Article 325). The legislative powers of Parliament and State Legislatures (Articles 327, 328) and the limited judicial intervention (Article 329) are also clearly depicted, showing a comprehensive and balanced constitutional design for elections.

The Election Commission of India (ECI): The Sentinel of Democracy

The ECI is an autonomous constitutional authority established on January 25, 1950. It is responsible for administering Union and State election processes, ensuring that elections are conducted transparently, efficiently, and impartially.

Composition of the ECI:

• Chief Election Commissioner (CEC): Appointed by the President.
• Two Election Commissioners (ECs): Also appointed by the President.
  • The concept of a multi-member Commission has been in operation since October 1, 1993, with decision-making power by majority vote.
  • Their appointment, conditions of service, and tenure are now governed by The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. The Selection Committee for ECs is headed by the Prime Minister, including the Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha and a Union Cabinet Minister.

Powers and Functions of the ECI:

The ECI's powers are comprehensive and cover the entire electoral process.

• Delimitation of Constituencies: It determines electoral boundaries to ensure fair representation. Articles 82 and 170 of the Constitution provide for readjustment and division of states into territorial constituencies based on census data.
• Preparation and Revision of Electoral Rolls: Periodically revises and updates electoral rolls, registering all eligible voters.
• Notification of Election Schedules: Notifies the schedules and dates of elections.
• Scrutiny of Nomination Papers: Scrutinizes the nomination papers filed by candidates.
• Granting Recognition to Political Parties and Allotting Symbols: Grants recognition to political parties and allocates them election symbols. It also ensures inner-party democracy by insisting on periodic organizational elections.
• Acting as a Quasi-Judicial Body: Settles disputes concerning the granting of recognition to political parties and allocating election symbols.
• Appointing Officers: Appoints officers for inquiring into disputes concerning electoral arrangements.
• Determining and Enforcing Model Code of Conduct (MCC): Evolves and enforces the Model Code of Conduct to be followed by political parties and candidates during elections, ensuring ethical campaigning and a level playing field.
• Advising on Disqualification: Advises in the matter of post-election disqualification of sitting members of Parliament and State Legislatures.
• Conducting Elections: Organizes and supervises elections for the Parliament, State Assemblies, and other constitutional positions.
• Monitoring Election Expenditure: Proofreads the expenses list submitted by candidates and political parties. The ECI revises election expenditure limits for contesting candidates from time to time.

Diagram: Structure and Functions of ECI

graph TD
    A[Election Commission of India (ECI)] --> B[Composition];
    B --> B1[Chief Election Commissioner (CEC)];
    B --> B2[Two Election Commissioners (ECs)];
    A --> C[Powers & Functions];
    C --> C1[Superintendence, Direction, Control of Elections];
    C1 --> C1a[Parliamentary Elections];
    C1 --> C1b[State Legislative Elections];
    C1 --> C1c[Presidential Elections];
    C1 --> C1d[Vice-Presidential Elections];
    C --> C2[Delimitation of Constituencies];
    C --> C3[Preparation & Revision of Electoral Rolls];
    C --> C4[Notification of Election Schedules];
    C --> C5[Scrutiny of Nominations];
    C --> C6[Recognition of Parties & Allotment of Symbols];
    C --> C7[Enforcement of Model Code of Conduct (MCC)];
    C --> C8[Advisory Role on Disqualifications];
    C --> C9[Settlement of Election Disputes (Party recognition/symbols)];
    C --> C10[Monitoring Election Expenditure];

Explanation: This organogram visually represents the structure of the Election Commission of India, showing its multi-member composition, and comprehensively lists its key powers and functions. It highlights the ECI's vast responsibilities, from preparing electoral rolls to monitoring election expenditure and enforcing the Model Code of Conduct, showcasing its role as an independent body vital for democratic integrity.

The Election Process in India: A Step-by-Step Journey

The election process in India is a detailed and structured series of steps defined by the Constitution and other election statutes.

1. Announcement of Election Schedule: The ECI announces the schedule for elections, including dates for notification, nominations, scrutiny, withdrawals, polling, and counting.
2. Issue of Notification: The President (for Lok Sabha) or the Governor (for State Assembly) issues the formal notification for the election.
3. Filing of Nominations: Candidates submit their nomination papers to the returning officer.
4. Scrutiny of Nominations: The returning officer scrutinizes the nomination papers to ensure they comply with legal requirements.
5. Withdrawal of Candidature: Candidates have a window to withdraw their nominations.
6. Allotment of Symbols: Approved candidates are allotted election symbols, particularly important for illiterate voters.
7. Election Campaign: Political parties and candidates engage in campaigns to persuade voters. The official campaign period usually concludes 48 hours before polling. During this period, the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is strictly enforced.
8. Polling Day(s): Voters cast their votes at designated polling stations using Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs), ensuring a secret ballot. Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) systems are also used to provide a verifiable paper trail.
9. Counting of Votes: After polling, votes are counted, typically on a pre-announced date.
10. Declaration of Results: The candidate securing the maximum votes in a constituency (under the First-Past-the-Post system) is declared the winner.
11. Constitution of the House: Once results are declared for all constituencies, the ECI facilitates the constitution of the new House.
12. Election Petitions: Disputes regarding elections can be challenged through election petitions in the High Courts, with appeals lying to the Supreme Court.

Flowchart: Indian Election Process

graph TD
    A[Announcement of Election Schedule by ECI] --> B[Issue of Notification];
    B --> C[Filing of Nominations by Candidates];
    C --> D[Scrutiny of Nomination Papers];
    D --> E[Withdrawal of Candidature];
    E --> F[Allotment of Election Symbols];
    F --> G[Election Campaign Period];
    G --> H[Polling Days (Voting)];
    H --> I[Counting of Votes];
    I --> J[Declaration of Results];
    J --> K[Constitution of the House];
    K --> L{Election Disputes?};
    L -- Yes --> M[Election Petitions (Courts)];
    L -- No --> N[New Government in Place];

Explanation: This flowchart illustrates the sequential steps involved in the Indian election process, from the initial announcement by the ECI to the final declaration of results and the constitution of the house. It clearly shows the various stages a candidate and the electoral machinery go through, including the crucial step of campaigning and the role of the judiciary in resolving disputes.

Types of Elections in India

India conducts various types of elections at different levels of governance: national, state, and local.

1. Parliamentary General Elections (Lok Sabha)

• Purpose: To elect members to the Lok Sabha (House of the People), the lower house of the Indian Parliament.
• Frequency: Held every five years, unless dissolved earlier.
• Electoral System: Follows the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system. The country is divided into separate geographical areas called constituencies, and voters cast one vote for a candidate. The candidate who secures the maximum votes in a constituency is declared the winner.
• Voters: Indian citizens above 18 years of age (universal adult suffrage).
• Government Formation: The political party or coalition that secures a majority of seats (at least half of the total seats, i.e., 272 out of 543) forms the Union Government, led by the Prime Minister.

2. State Assembly Elections (Vidhan Sabha)

• Purpose: To elect members to the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabhas).
• Frequency: Held every five years for each state, unless dissolved earlier.
• Electoral System: Similar to Lok Sabha elections, these also employ the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system.
• Voters: Citizens residing in the respective state above 18 years of age.
• Government Formation: The political party or coalition with a majority of seats in the State Assembly forms the State Government, led by the Chief Minister.

3. Rajya Sabha Elections (Council of States)

• Purpose: To elect members to the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), the upper house of the Indian Parliament.
• Frequency: Members are elected for a term of six years, with one-third of the members retiring every two years, leading to biennial elections.
• Electoral System: Members are indirectly elected by the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies using the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote (STV).
• Nominated Members: The President nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha who have special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art, and social service.

4. Presidential Elections

• Purpose: To elect the President of India, the ceremonial head of state.
• Frequency: Held every five years.
• Electoral System: The President is indirectly elected by an electoral college comprising:
  • Elected members of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha).
  • Elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States.
  • Elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry.
  • The election uses the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote (STV) through secret ballot. The value of votes of MLAs and MPs is determined by a formula based on the 1971 census, which will continue until 2026.

5. Vice-Presidential Elections

• Purpose: To elect the Vice-President of India, who also serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
• Frequency: Held every five years.
• Electoral System: The Vice-President is indirectly elected by an electoral college consisting of members (elected and nominated) of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha). This election also uses the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.

6. Local Body Elections (Panchayats and Municipalities)

• Purpose: To elect representatives to rural local self-governing bodies (Panchayats) and urban local self-governing bodies (Municipalities).
• Constitutional Provisions: These elections are governed by Part IX (Panchayats) and Part IXA (Municipalities) of the Constitution.
• Oversight: A separate State Election Commission is responsible for conducting elections to Municipalities and Panchayats in the states, as the ECI does not deal with these elections.

7. By-elections

• Purpose: Held to fill vacant seats that arise due to resignation, death, or disqualification of an elected member in any of the above bodies.
• Frequency: Held as and when required.
• Process: Similar to regular elections for the respective body.

Comparison Table: Types of Elections in India

Explanation: This table provides a concise comparison of the major types of elections held in India. It clearly distinguishes between direct and indirect elections, the specific electoral systems used, the conducting authority, and the composition of the electorate for each. This helps in understanding the diverse nature of democratic representation in India.

Landmark Judgments and Electoral Reforms

The Indian judiciary has played a crucial role in strengthening the electoral system through various landmark judgments, often leading to significant electoral reforms.

• Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR), 2002: This landmark case marked a significant milestone for electoral transparency. The Supreme Court ruled that the right to information about electoral candidates' backgrounds is intrinsic to the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution. The Court emphasized the public's right to know about candidates' criminal records, educational qualifications, and financial assets and liabilities. This judgment led to the ECI requiring all candidates to submit affidavits with these disclosures, significantly enhancing transparency and accountability.

• People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) v. Union of India, 2013: Following this Supreme Court directive, the "None of the Above" (NOTA) option was introduced in EVMs. NOTA allows voters to express their dissent if they do not wish to vote for any of the contesting candidates, upholding the right to secrecy of the voter's choice and compelling political parties to nominate sound candidates.

• Lily Thomas v. Union of India, 2013: The Supreme Court declared Section 8(4) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, as unconstitutional. This section previously allowed legislators a three-month window to appeal against their conviction, effectively delaying their disqualification. The judgment mandated immediate disqualification of convicted MPs and MLAs upon conviction.

• Subramanian Swamy vs. Election Commission of India, 2013: The Supreme Court held that Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) is "indispensable for free and fair elections" and directed the ECI to equip EVMs with VVPAT systems to ensure accuracy and auditability.

• Representation of the People Act, 1950 and 1951: These acts, enacted by Parliament under Article 327, govern various aspects of elections, including the allocation of seats, delimitation of constituencies, voter qualifications, electoral rolls, conduct of elections, qualifications/disqualifications for membership, corrupt practices, and election disputes.

Contemporary Developments and Challenges

Despite a robust framework, the Indian electoral system faces several challenges and is continuously evolving with new developments.

Key Challenges:

• Criminalization of Politics: A significant number of elected representatives have criminal cases pending against them, raising concerns about the integrity of the political system and undermining public trust.
• Money Power: Excessive election spending, often exceeding legal limits, and a lack of transparency in political funding (e.g., through electoral bonds) undermine fairness and create an uneven playing field.
• Misuse of Media/Digital Platforms: The spread of misinformation, hate speech, and paid news through traditional and digital media poses a threat to free and fair elections.
• Voter Turnout and Apathy: While India boasts high voter numbers, urban apathy and the disenfranchisement of migrant workers remain concerns, affecting overall turnout.
• EVM and VVPAT Concerns: While EVMs and VVPATs have enhanced efficiency and transparency, concerns about their security, potential tampering, and the need for 100% VVPAT verification persist.
• Model Code of Conduct (MCC) Violations: Despite the MCC, violations by political parties and candidates, including divisive rhetoric and distribution of freebies, remain a challenge.
• Lack of Inner-Party Democracy: Many political parties lack internal democratic processes, with decisions often centralized, impacting overall democratic health.

Proposed Electoral Reforms:

Various commissions, courts, and civil society organizations have recommended electoral reforms to address these challenges.

• Decriminalization of Politics: Amending the Representation of the People Act to disqualify candidates with serious criminal charges and expediting trials of lawmaker-related cases.
• Transparency in Political Funding: Measures like state funding of elections and mandatory disclosure of all donations to political parties are proposed to reduce the influence of money power.
• Strengthening ECI Independence: Ensuring financial autonomy for the ECI and providing it with more legal authority to act against electoral malpractices.
• EVM and VVPAT Enhancements: Improving verification processes, considering scientific sampling methods for VVPAT verification, and potentially introducing "Totaliser" machines to aggregate votes before revealing candidate-wise counts.
• Stricter Enforcement of MCC: Giving the ECI more teeth to enforce the MCC, including the authority to revoke "Star Campaigner" status or suspend/withdraw party recognition for repeated violations.
• Simultaneous Elections: Synchronizing terms for Lok Sabha and State Assemblies to reduce logistical challenges and costs, though this remains a contentious proposal.
• Proportional Representation: Replacing or modifying the FPTP system with a proportional representation model for better representation of diverse ideologies, particularly in some elections.

Conclusion: The Enduring Journey of Indian Democracy

India's electoral system is a dynamic and evolving testament to its democratic spirit. While the constitutional provisions lay a strong foundation and the Election Commission of India tirelessly works to uphold the integrity of the process, challenges persist. Continuous electoral reforms, driven by judicial pronouncements, legislative action, and public demand, are crucial to ensure that elections remain free, fair, and transparent. By addressing issues like criminalization, money power, and the misuse of technology, India can further strengthen its electoral democracy, setting a benchmark for global democracies. The journey of electoral reform is ongoing, vital for reinforcing public trust and ensuring a robust, participatory, and credible political system for the 21st century.

Interactive Q&A / Practice Exercises

Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Which Article of the Indian Constitution vests the power of superintendence, direction, and control of elections in the Election Commission of India? a) Article 320 b) Article 324 c) Article 326 d) Article 329

Correct Answer: b) Article 324 Explanation: Article 324 explicitly states that the superintendence, direction, and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President shall be vested in the Election Commission.

2. The voting age in India was reduced from 21 years to 18 years by which Constitutional Amendment Act? a) 42nd Amendment Act b) 44th Amendment Act c) 61st Amendment Act d) 73rd Amendment Act

Correct Answer: c) 61st Amendment Act Explanation: The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act of 1989 lowered the voting age for elections to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies from 21 years to 18 years.

3. Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by which of the following electoral systems? a) First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) b) Proportional Representation by means of Single Transferable Vote (STV) c) Direct election by universal adult suffrage d) Nomination by the President

Correct Answer: b) Proportional Representation by means of Single Transferable Vote (STV) Explanation: Members of the Rajya Sabha are indirectly elected by the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies using the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. Direct election and nomination are not the primary methods for electing members to the Rajya Sabha (though nomination accounts for 12 members).

4. The landmark Supreme Court judgment in Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms (2002) primarily led to which of the following electoral reforms? a) Introduction of NOTA option b) Mandating disclosure of criminal records, assets, and educational qualifications by candidates c) Immediate disqualification of convicted legislators d) Use of VVPATs in all elections

Correct Answer: b) Mandating disclosure of criminal records, assets, and educational qualifications by candidates Explanation: This case significantly enhanced electoral transparency by ruling that candidates must disclose their criminal records, educational qualifications, and financial assets and liabilities, stemming from the voters' right to information. NOTA (2013), immediate disqualification (2013), and VVPATs (2013) were outcomes of other judgments.

5. Which of the following bodies is responsible for conducting elections to Panchayats and Municipalities in India? a) Election Commission of India b) Union Ministry of Home Affairs c) State Election Commission d) District Collector

Correct Answer: c) State Election Commission Explanation: Article 324 of the Constitution explicitly states that the Election Commission of India does not deal with elections to Municipalities and Panchayats. Therefore, a separate State Election Commission is provided by the Constitution for this purpose.

Scenario-Based Questions

Scenario 1: A Member of Parliament (MP) is convicted by a trial court for a serious criminal offense and sentenced to two years in prison. What is the immediate consequence for their membership in Parliament, based on recent electoral reforms?

Explanation: Based on the Supreme Court's judgment in Lily Thomas v. Union of India (2013), a Member of Parliament (or MLA) stands immediately disqualified from their membership in the House upon conviction for a criminal offense attracting a sentence of two or more years, without the previous three-month window for appeal. This judgment struck down Section 8(4) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, which allowed convicted legislators to continue in office if they filed an appeal within three months. Therefore, the MP would lose their seat immediately upon conviction.

Scenario 2: During a Lok Sabha election campaign, a political party makes a public announcement stating that if they come to power, they will provide free electricity to all households, regardless of income. The Election Commission of India issues a notice to the party, citing a violation of the Model Code of Conduct. Is the ECI's action justifiable, and what is the underlying principle here?

Explanation: Yes, the ECI's action is generally justifiable. The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) aims to ensure a level playing field and prevent unfair practices during elections. While offering welfare schemes is a legitimate function of a government, promises of "freebies" made during the election campaign period, especially those that can unduly influence voters or are not financially sound, can be seen as violations of the spirit of the MCC. The ECI often issues guidelines and advisories regarding such promises to maintain the integrity of the electoral process. The underlying principle is to ensure ethical campaigning and prevent the misuse of power or resources to gain an unfair advantage. The ECI's role is to ensure that parties adhere to a code of conduct evolved with consensus to maintain decorum and fairness.

Match-the-Following

Match the Constitutional Article with its corresponding provision:

Correct Match:

1. Article 326 - c. Elections based on adult suffrage
2. Article 324 - d. Superintendence, direction, and control of elections by ECI
3. Article 327 - a. Power of Parliament to make laws regarding elections
4. Article 325 - b. No discrimination in electoral rolls on grounds of religion, race, etc.

Diagram-Based Question

(Imagine a simple diagram showing two boxes: "Direct Elections" and "Indirect Elections". Connected to "Direct Elections" are "Lok Sabha" and "State Assembly". Connected to "Indirect Elections" are "President" and "Rajya Sabha".)

Question: Based on the diagram above and your understanding of the Indian electoral system, identify one characteristic difference between the electoral process for "Lok Sabha" and "Rajya Sabha".

Explanation: One characteristic difference is the method of election.

• Lok Sabha elections are direct elections where citizens directly vote for their representatives using the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system.
• Rajya Sabha elections are indirect elections where members are chosen by the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies, using the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. This distinction reflects the different roles and compositions of the two houses of Parliament.

Recommended Books

You can explore these highly recommended resources for a deeper understanding.

• Indian Polity (English) by M Laxmikanth for UPSC CSE 2025 | 7th edition (latest) | Civil Services Exam - Prelims, Mains and Interview | State PSCs exams/ PCS exams - by M Laxmikanth
• Oswaal NCERT One For All Book for UPSC & State PSCs | Indian Polity Classes 6-12 - by Oswaal Editorial Board
• Bharat Ki Rajvyavastha (भारत की राजव्यवस्था) - M Laxmikanth for UPSC CSE