👉 Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996: Empowering Tribal Self-Governance in India

The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) represent the cornerstone of local self-governance in rural India, embodying the nation's commitment to grassroots democracy and decentralization. Constitutionally recognized through the 73rd Amendment Act of 1992, these institutions empower rural communities by providing them with the authority and resources to manage their local affairs, foster economic development, and strengthen social justice. This comprehensive set of notes delves into the multifaceted aspects of PRIs, covering their historical evolution, constitutional framework, achievements, persistent challenges, and the path forward for enhancing their effectiveness in India's governance landscape. Designed for UPSC aspirants, State PCS candidates, law and political science students, and academic researchers, it aims to provide conceptual clarity, constitutional accuracy, and analytical depth.

1. Introduction: Understanding Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)

Panchayati Raj literally translates to 'rule by five officials' and historically refers to a system of rural administration in India. In contemporary India, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are the constitutionally mandated local self-government bodies operating in rural areas. They form the third tier of India's democratic structure, aiming to bring governance closer to the people and ensure their direct participation in local development and decision-making processes.

The primary objective of PRIs is to promote rural development, strengthen social justice, and facilitate the implementation of various Central and State Government schemes, including those related to the 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution.

2. Historical and Constitutional Background

The concept of local self-governance in India is deeply rooted in its ancient past, evolving through various historical periods before being formalized in independent India.

2.1. Ancient and Medieval Period

Village councils, often comprising a group of elders, were prevalent in ancient India, referred to as 'Sabhas' and 'Gramins' in texts like the Rigveda. During the rule of dynasties such as the Mauryas, Guptas, and Cholas, villages largely functioned as self-governing units. Even under Mughal rule, village panchayats persisted as self-sufficient councils, managing local affairs.

2.2. British Colonial Period

The British colonial rule significantly altered the power dynamics of local governance. While Lord Ripon's Resolution of 1882 is often hailed as the 'Magna Carta' of local self-government, advocating decentralization and involving Indians in municipal institutions, the overall impact was limited. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 made local self-government a "transferred subject" under Indian ministers, but true autonomy remained elusive.

2.3. Post-Independence Era and Constituent Assembly Debates

After India gained independence, there was a strong recognition that Panchayati Raj was imperative for deepening democracy and fostering inclusive development. Mahatma Gandhi was a staunch proponent of 'Gram Swaraj' (village self-rule) and envisioned villages as self-contained republics governed by a five-member panchayat.

However, the initial draft of the Indian Constitution did not include specific provisions for Panchayats. This omission led to significant debate within the Constituent Assembly. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, while acknowledging the historical significance of villages, expressed concerns about their local nature being potentially counterproductive to national patriotism, referring to them as "the ruination of India." In contrast, Gandhian followers, led by Shri K. Santhanam, successfully advocated for the inclusion of village panchayats.

This led to the inclusion of Article 40 in Part IV (Directive Principles of State Policy) of the Constitution, which states: "The State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government." Being a Directive Principle, Article 40 was non-binding and did not lead to a uniform structure of panchayats across the country initially.

2.4. Evolution and Key Committees (Pre-73rd Amendment)

Several committees were appointed to study and recommend measures for strengthening Panchayati Raj:

• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957): This committee, appointed to examine the Community Development Programme (1952) and National Extension Service (1953), recommended the establishment of a three-tier Panchayati Raj system: Gram Panchayats (village level), Panchayat Samitis (block level), and Zila Parishads (district level). It advocated for democratic decentralization, with directly elected Gram Panchayat members and indirectly elected representatives for Panchayat Samitis and Zila Parishads. Rajasthan was the first state to implement this system in 1959, followed by Andhra Pradesh.

  Table: Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Recommendations (1957)

  Tier	Level	Election Method
  Gram Panchayat	Village	Direct
  Panchayat Samiti	Block/Intermediate	Indirect
  Zila Parishad	District	Indirect

• Ashok Mehta Committee (1977): Appointed to revive and strengthen the declining PRI system, it recommended a two-tier system: Zila Parishad (district level) and Mandal Panchayat (a group of villages). It suggested making the district the first point of decentralization below the state level for planning and administrative support.

• G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985): Recommended making the "district" the basic unit of planning and emphasized holding regular elections.

• L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986): Strongly recommended constitutional recognition for Panchayati Raj institutions, more financial resources, and free and fair elections. It recognized the need for constitutional provisions for panchayats.

These recommendations paved the way for legislative action. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi introduced the 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill in 1989, but it failed to pass in the Rajya Sabha. Later, the P.V. Narasimha Rao government introduced separate bills, which ultimately led to the enactment of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts.

3. Key Provisions & Articles: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992

The 73rd Amendment Act, which came into force on April 24, 1993, marked a watershed moment for democratic decentralization in India. It granted constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions, making their establishment and functioning mandatory for all states. The Act added a new Part IX to the Constitution, titled "The Panchayats," consisting of Articles 243 to 243O. It also added the Eleventh Schedule, which lists 29 functional items within the purview of Panchayats.

3.1. Salient Features of the 73rd Amendment Act

• Three-Tier System (Article 243B): Mandates a uniform three-tier structure of Panchayats at the village, intermediate (block), and district levels for all states with a population exceeding 20 lakhs (2 million). States with less than 20 lakh population may not constitute Panchayats at the intermediate level.

  Diagram: Three-Tier Panchayati Raj System

  +-----------------+
  |  Zila Parishad  | <-- District Level
  | (District Panchayat) |
  +--------|--------+
           |
           V
  +-----------------+
  | Panchayat Samiti | <-- Intermediate/Block Level
  | (Block Panchayat)  |
  +--------|--------+
           |
           V
  +-----------------+
  |  Gram Panchayat | <-- Village Level
  | (Village Panchayat) |
  +-----------------+
  

  Explanation: This flowchart illustrates the hierarchical structure introduced by the 73rd Amendment, ensuring local governance at different administrative levels.

• Gram Sabha (Article 243A): The foundation of the Panchayati Raj system, the Gram Sabha is an electoral body comprising all registered voters of a village within a Panchayat area. Its functions are determined by the state legislature, serving as a platform for direct democracy and accountability.

• Elections of Members and Chairpersons (Article 243C, 243K):

  • All members at all three levels are directly elected by the people.
  • The chairperson of a Panchayat at the village level is elected in a manner determined by the state legislature.
  • Chairpersons at the intermediate and district levels are elected indirectly by and from among the elected members.
  • An independent State Election Commission (SEC) is constituted to conduct and supervise Panchayat elections, including the preparation of electoral rolls.

• Reservation of Seats (Article 243D):

  • Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in proportion to their population at all three tiers.
  • Not less than one-third (33%) of the total seats at each level, and also the offices of chairpersons at all levels, are reserved for women. Many states have further increased this reservation to 50% for women.
  • State legislatures are empowered to make provisions for reservation of seats for backward classes in Panchayats at any level.

• Duration of Panchayats (Article 243E): Panchayats have a fixed tenure of five years. If dissolved earlier, fresh elections must be held within six months.

• Disqualifications for Membership (Article 243F): Grounds for disqualification are similar to those for election to the state legislature.

• Powers, Authority, and Responsibilities (Article 243G and Eleventh Schedule): State legislatures may endow Panchayats with powers and responsibilities to function as institutions of self-government, including:

  • Preparation of plans for economic development and social justice.
  • Implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice, including those related to the 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule.

  Table: Gist of 29 Functional Items in the Eleventh Schedule

  Category	Examples of Subjects
  Agriculture	Agriculture extension, land improvement, minor irrigation, water management, animal husbandry, fisheries, social forestry.
  Rural Development	Poverty alleviation programmes, Khadi, village and cottage industries, rural housing, drinking water, roads, culverts, bridges.
  Education	Primary and secondary education, adult and non-formal education, technical training, vocational education, libraries.
  Health & Sanitation	Health and sanitation, family welfare, women and child development, social welfare (including welfare of the handicapped).
  Social Justice	Welfare of weaker sections, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
  Infrastructure	Fuel and fodder, non-conventional energy sources, rural electrification.
  Other	Public distribution system, cultural activities, markets and fairs, maintenance of community assets.

• Financial Powers (Article 243H) and Funds of Panchayats: State legislatures can authorize Panchayats to:

  • Levy, collect, and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls, and fees.
  • Assign to Panchayats the taxes, duties, tolls, and fees collected by the state government.
  • Provide grants-in-aid to Panchayats from the Consolidated Fund of the State.
  • Constitute funds for crediting all moneys of the Panchayats.

• Finance Commission (Article 243I): The Governor of each state is mandated to constitute a State Finance Commission (SFC) every five years to review the financial position of Panchayats and make recommendations to the Governor regarding:

  • The distribution of net proceeds of taxes, duties, tolls, and fees between the state and Panchayats.
  • The determination of taxes, duties, tolls, and fees that may be assigned to Panchayats.
  • Grants-in-aid to Panchayats from the Consolidated Fund of the State.
  • Measures needed to improve the financial position of Panchayats.
  • The Central Finance Commission (under Article 280(3)(bb)) also makes recommendations to the President regarding measures to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement Panchayat resources.

• Audit of Accounts (Article 243J): The state legislature may make provisions for the maintenance and audit of accounts of Panchayats.

• Application to Union Territories (Article 243L): The President can direct that the provisions of Part IX apply to any Union Territory, with specified exceptions and modifications.

• Bar to Interference by Courts in Electoral Matters (Article 243O): This article bars the interference of courts in the electoral matters of Panchayats.

3.2. Compulsory vs. Voluntary Provisions

The 73rd Amendment Act contains both compulsory (binding on all states) and voluntary provisions (discretion of state governments).

• Compulsory Provisions: Include the three-tier system, Gram Sabha, regular elections, reservation for SCs/STs and women, constitution of SEC and SFC, fixed tenure.
• Voluntary Provisions: Include reservation for backward classes, granting financial powers, devolution of powers for economic development and social justice for the 29 subjects in the Eleventh Schedule.

4. Institutional Framework & Functions

The three-tier structure of PRIs operates as follows:

1. Gram Panchayat (Village Level):

   • Composition: Consists of a Sarpanch (head) and ward members, directly elected by the Gram Sabha.
   • Functions: Responsible for basic services and development at the village level, including sanitation, drinking water, street lighting, maintenance of village roads, primary education, welfare of weaker sections, minor irrigation, and implementation of government schemes.

2. Panchayat Samiti (Intermediate/Block Level):

   • Composition: Members are indirectly elected from among the elected members of the Gram Panchayats or as determined by state law. The Block Development Officer (BDO) often serves as the administrative head.
   • Functions: Coordinates the activities of Gram Panchayats within the block, implements block-level development programs, manages funds for community welfare, and promotes self-employment and skill development.

3. Zila Parishad (District Level):

   • Composition: Members are indirectly elected or may include MPs, MLAs, and chairpersons of Panchayat Samitis at the district level. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the Zila Parishad is usually an IAS officer.
   • Functions: Oversees and coordinates the functions of Panchayat Samitis and Gram Panchayats, prepares district-level development plans, implements district-level schemes, and advises the state government on development matters.

5. Judicial Interpretations and Landmark Cases

While the 73rd Amendment provided constitutional backing, judicial pronouncements have further shaped the functioning and legal standing of PRIs.

• Rajbala v. State of Haryana (2015): The Supreme Court upheld the Haryana Panchayati Raj (Amendment) Act, 2015, which imposed minimum educational qualifications, along with other criteria (like no outstanding dues or criminal charges), for contesting Panchayat elections. This judgment sparked debate regarding its implications for grassroots democracy and inclusiveness, as it potentially excluded a significant portion of the rural population, especially women and marginalized communities, from participating in elections.

• Village Panchayat, Calangute v. Additional Director Of Panchayat-II And Others (2012): This landmark case affirmed the legal standing (locus standi) of village panchayats as autonomous bodies. The Supreme Court held that a village panchayat, as a corporate entity, has the right to file petitions under Articles 226 and 227 of the Constitution to protect its interests and execute its functions effectively. This decision underscored the importance of empowering local self-governments within India's democratic framework.

6. Achievements of Panchayati Raj Institutions

Despite numerous challenges, PRIs have made significant strides since the 73rd Amendment:

• Democratic Decentralization and Grassroots Participation: PRIs have successfully established a third tier of government, bringing democracy closer to the people and fostering greater public participation in local governance. Panchayat elections are keenly contested, indicating massive political participation.

• Women's Empowerment: This is perhaps the most significant achievement. The reservation of one-third (and in many states, 50%) of seats for women has led to unprecedented female political representation.

  • Currently, over 1.3 million women are elected representatives in PRIs, constituting a record number globally.
  • Women's involvement in local governance has fostered a sense of empowerment, enabled them to advocate for their needs (e.g., healthcare, education), and challenged patriarchal attitudes, though the issue of "Sarpanch Pati" (male relatives wielding power) still persists. Studies show that female political representation leads to increased reporting of crimes and a focus on issues relevant to women.

• Empowerment of SCs/STs: Reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have ensured their representation and participation in local decision-making processes, promoting social justice and inclusivity.

• Local Development Initiatives: PRIs play a crucial role in planning and implementing local development projects, managing funds for community welfare, promoting self-employment, and executing various central and state government schemes (e.g., Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act - MGNREGA).

• Capacity Building and Awareness: Over time, there has been a gradual increase in the administrative knowledge and capacity of elected representatives, especially through training programs. Citizens are also becoming more aware of their rights and entitlements under the Panchayati Raj system.

7. Challenges Faced by Panchayati Raj Institutions

Despite their achievements, PRIs continue to grapple with several significant challenges that impede their effectiveness:

• Inadequate Devolution of "3 Fs" (Functions, Funds, Functionaries): This remains the most critical impediment.

  • Functions: While the Eleventh Schedule lists 29 subjects, many states have not fully devolved these powers to PRIs, retaining control over crucial sectors like irrigation, education, and healthcare. This limits their scope of work and effectiveness.
  • Funds: PRIs suffer from severe financial constraints. They heavily depend on grants from central and state governments, which are often meager, irregular, and inadequate. Their own-source revenue (OSR) generation through taxes (e.g., property tax, professional tax) is very limited, accounting for only about 1% of their total revenue. This lack of financial autonomy makes them mere spending agencies, unable to decide local spending priorities.
  • Functionaries: There is a shortage of adequately trained and qualified personnel at the Panchayat level, limiting their capacity to manage resources and implement programs effectively. State governments often retain administrative control and staff, hindering effective decentralization.

• Bureaucratic Interference and Political Will: State governments and bureaucracy often exercise excessive control and interfere in the autonomy and decision-making power of PRIs, undermining their independence. This "plateau in administrative decentralization" means states are reluctant to cede control.

• Persistence of Patriarchal Attitudes and "Sarpanch Pati" Syndrome: Despite reservations, entrenched patriarchal structures and societal expectations often limit women's active participation and decision-making power. The phenomenon of "Sarpanch Pati" (male relatives of female village heads wielding power) is a glaring example.

• Infrastructural Deficiencies: Many Gram Panchayats lack their own buildings or basic facilities like toilets, drinking water, and electricity. Functional internet connections are also often absent, forcing officials to travel to block development offices and delaying work.

• Lack of Capacity Building and Awareness: Many elected representatives lack proper education and administrative knowledge. Limited training and skill development programs hinder their effective functioning. Rural populations also often lack awareness of their rights and the functions of the PRIs.

• Decline in Public Participation: Despite constitutional provisions, public engagement in Gram Sabha meetings and local governance has seen a decline in some areas. Effective participation of marginalized sections also needs to be enhanced.

• Overdependence on Centrally Sponsored Schemes: Many central government programs bypass PRIs and directly deliver benefits to citizens, further reducing the role and significance of local bodies in scheme implementation and oversight.

• Lack of Accountability and Transparency Mechanisms: The absence of robust accountability and transparency mechanisms, such as effective social audits and performance evaluation systems, can lead to potential misuse of funds and erosion of public trust.

• Coordination Issues: There is often a multiplicity of agencies involved in rural development programs and a lack of coordination among them, leading to duplication of efforts and inefficient implementation. Lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities among the three tiers of PRIs also leads to overlapping functions and conflicts.

8. Path Forward for Local Governance in India

Strengthening Panchayati Raj Institutions is an ongoing process that requires sustained commitment from the government, civil society, and rural communities. The vision is to empower PRIs to become true institutions of self-government, capable of driving inclusive development and social change.

8.1. Recommendations from Committees and Experts:

• Strengthening the Gram Sabha: The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) proposed giving more power directly to the Gram Sabha, suggesting it should not only supervise but also be actively involved in planning economic development and social justice programs. Quorum requirements for Gram Sabha meetings should be enforced to ensure participation.

• Effective Devolution of "3Fs": State governments must make genuine efforts to devolve funds, functions, and functionaries to Panchayats.

  • Functions: All 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule should be genuinely transferred to PRIs.
  • Funds: Ensure fiscal autonomy through predictable and adequate transfers. The principle of subsidiarity should be followed, where higher levels of government perform only those functions that cannot be effectively performed at the local level.
  • Functionaries: Adequate staff, with proper training and administrative knowledge, should be provided to Panchayats. The Sumit Bose Committee recommended a full-time secretary and a technical assistant for every panchayat.

• Enhancing Financial Autonomy and Sustainability:

  • PRIs need to substantially improve their own source revenue (OSR) generation by setting reasonable tax and fee rates and improving collection efficiencies.
  • State Finance Commissions (SFCs) must be constituted timely, and their recommendations regarding financial devolution and grants-in-aid should be implemented robustly.
  • The RBI report (2022-23) advocated for transparent budgeting, fiscal discipline, and community involvement in development prioritization.

• Capacity Building and Training: Regular and comprehensive training programs are essential for elected representatives and officials of PRIs to enhance their skills, knowledge, and administrative capabilities.

• Leveraging Information and Communication Technology (ICT):

  • Initiatives like e-GramSwaraj aim to transform Panchayat functioning through ICT for planning, implementation, and monitoring of schemes, ensuring transparency and accountability.
  • AuditOnline application helps in online auditing of Panchayat accounts, enhancing credibility.
  • Transaction-based software for financial management, e-procurement, and database maintenance is crucial.

• Promoting Social Accountability and Transparency:

  • Strengthen mechanisms like Gram Sabhas and social audits to ensure public oversight and accountability of PRIs.
  • The Sumit Bose Committee suggested a minimum of four Gram Sabha meetings a year.

• Convergence of Government Programs: Ensure better coordination and convergence of various central and state government development programs to avoid duplication and enhance efficiency.

• Specific Government Initiatives for Strengthening PRIs:

  • Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA): A centrally sponsored scheme focusing on capacity building, training, and providing technical support to Panchayats for effective governance and service delivery.
  • SVAMITVA Scheme (Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas): Aims to provide "record of rights" to rural household owners using drone surveys, enabling them to use property as a financial asset and aiding in better Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) preparation.
  • People's Plan Campaign (PPC) - Sabki Yojana Sabka Vikas: Aims to combine development programs at the Panchayat level, spread activities, and use digital technology for transparency.

8.2. Comparative Perspective: The Principle of Subsidiarity

The concept of the "principle of subsidiarity," enshrined in the EU's Maastricht Treaty, suggests that higher levels of government should perform only those functions that cannot be effectively performed at the local level. In India, achieving true subsidiarity in PRIs is vital for their financial self-reliance and effective decision-making, as noted by the RBI report.

9. Conclusion & Summary

Panchayati Raj Institutions are indispensable for strengthening grassroots democracy and achieving inclusive, sustainable rural development in India. The 73rd Amendment Act was a landmark reform, transforming traditional village councils into formal democratic institutions with defined powers and responsibilities. Achievements in political participation and women's empowerment are significant, demonstrating the potential of decentralized governance.

However, the full realization of their potential is hampered by persistent challenges, primarily the inadequate devolution of "3Fs," financial dependence, and bureaucratic hurdles. The path forward demands a holistic approach, focusing on genuine decentralization, fiscal empowerment, robust capacity building, leveraging technology, and fostering greater community participation and accountability. By addressing these challenges effectively, India can move closer to Mahatma Gandhi's vision of 'Gram Swaraj' and establish a truly empowered local self-government system.

10. Practice Questions & Answers

To reinforce learning and test comprehension, here are some practice questions:

✅ Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Which Article of the Indian Constitution directs the State to organize Village Panchayats as units of self-government? a) Article 38 b) Article 40 c) Article 44 d) Article 48

Correct Answer: b) Article 40 Explanation: Article 40, part of the Directive Principles of State Policy, mandates the state to organize village panchayats and endow them with powers for self-governance.

2. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, added which new Part and Schedule to the Constitution? a) Part VIII and Tenth Schedule b) Part IX and Eleventh Schedule c) Part X and Twelfth Schedule d) Part XI and Ninth Schedule

Correct Answer: b) Part IX and Eleventh Schedule Explanation: The 73rd Amendment inserted Part IX, "The Panchayats," and the Eleventh Schedule, which lists 29 functional items for Panchayats.

3. What is the minimum reservation of seats mandated for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions under the 73rd Amendment Act? a) 25% b) 30% c) 33.33% (one-third) d) 50%

Correct Answer: c) 33.33% (one-third) Explanation: The 73rd Amendment mandates not less than one-third of the total seats and chairperson positions at each level to be reserved for women. Many states have increased this to 50%.

4. Which committee recommended a two-tier Panchayati Raj system consisting of Zila Parishad and Mandal Panchayat? a) Balwant Rai Mehta Committee b) Ashok Mehta Committee c) L.M. Singhvi Committee d) G.V.K. Rao Committee

Correct Answer: b) Ashok Mehta Committee Explanation: The Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) recommended replacing the three-tier system with a two-tier system of Zila Parishad and Mandal Panchayat.

5. Which of the following is NOT a compulsory provision of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act? a) Constitution of State Election Commission b) Fixed tenure of five years for Panchayats c) Reservation of seats for backward classes d) Direct election of members at all three levels

Correct Answer: c) Reservation of seats for backward classes Explanation: Reservation for backward classes is a voluntary provision, left to the discretion of state legislatures. The other options are compulsory provisions.

🔍 Scenario-Based Questions

Scenario 1: A Gram Panchayat in a drought-prone region proposes a plan for constructing check dams and community irrigation channels. However, the State government delays the release of funds and personnel, arguing that a centrally sponsored scheme for large-scale irrigation projects is being rolled out.

Question: What challenges faced by PRIs are highlighted in this scenario, and what constitutional provisions are being undermined? Answer: This scenario highlights several key challenges:

1. Inadequate Devolution of Funds and Functionaries: The delay in releasing funds and personnel directly impacts the Gram Panchayat's ability to implement its local development plan, demonstrating insufficient devolution of financial and administrative resources from the state government.
2. Bureaucratic Interference/Lack of Autonomy: The state government's argument for delaying local projects in favor of a larger central scheme indicates a lack of autonomy for the PRI to implement its locally tailored solutions, even when constitutionally empowered for economic development planning.
3. Overdependence on Centrally Sponsored Schemes: The state's focus on a centrally sponsored scheme bypassing the PRI's proposal suggests a broader trend where PRIs are sidelined in development initiatives, reducing their role and effectiveness.

Constitutional provisions being undermined include:

• Article 243G: Which empowers Panchayats to prepare plans for economic development and social justice and implement schemes related to the Eleventh Schedule subjects (e.g., minor irrigation, water management).
• Article 243H and 243I: The spirit of financial empowerment through state grants and the recommendations of the State Finance Commission is undermined when funds are not released adequately or in a timely manner.

Scenario 2: In a Gram Panchayat election, a woman candidate wins the Sarpanch position due to seat reservation. However, her husband regularly attends official meetings, makes decisions, and interacts with government officials on her behalf, while she remains largely confined to domestic roles.

Question: What socio-political challenge does this situation exemplify, and what measures could be taken to address it? Answer: This situation exemplifies the "Sarpanch Pati" (husband of Sarpanch) syndrome, a significant socio-political challenge. It highlights:

1. Persistence of Patriarchal Attitudes: Deep-seated gender biases and patriarchal societal norms prevent elected women from fully exercising their constitutional mandate.
2. Limited Decision-Making Power for Women: Despite formal representation, women's effective participation and influence in decision-making are curtailed.

Measures to address this challenge include:

• Intensive Capacity Building and Training: Provide continuous training to elected women representatives to enhance their leadership skills, administrative knowledge, and confidence to assert their authority.
• Awareness Campaigns: Conduct widespread awareness campaigns in rural areas to educate both men and women about the constitutional role and powers of elected women representatives and to challenge patriarchal norms.
• Strengthening Gram Sabhas: Empower the Gram Sabha to hold elected representatives accountable, ensuring that the elected woman Sarpanch, and not her proxy, performs her duties.
• Role of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs): CSOs can play a crucial role in mobilizing and empowering women, creating support networks, and advocating for their active participation.
• Legal Action: In extreme cases of proxy governance, legal provisions against interference in the functioning of elected officials could be invoked, if explicitly provided in state-specific Panchayat Raj Acts.

🔄 Match-the-following / Chronology exercises

1. Match the following Committees with their key recommendations:

Options: a) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4 b) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 c) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1 d) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3

Correct Answer: a) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4 Explanation: Balwant Rai Mehta (three-tier), Ashok Mehta (two-tier), L.M. Singhvi (constitutional status), G.V.K. Rao (district as planning unit).

2. Arrange the following events related to Panchayati Raj in chronological order:

1. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report
2. 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act comes into force
3. Inclusion of Article 40 in the Constitution
4. Ashok Mehta Committee Report

Options: a) 3-1-4-2 b) 1-3-4-2 c) 3-4-1-2 d) 1-2-3-4

Correct Answer: a) 3-1-4-2 Explanation:

• Article 40 included (post-independence, during Constituent Assembly debates).
• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report (1957).
• Ashok Mehta Committee Report (1977).
• 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act comes into force (April 24, 1993).

Recommended Books

You can explore these highly recommended resources for a deeper understanding.

• Indian Polity (English) by M Laxmikanth for UPSC CSE 2025 | 7th edition (latest) | Civil Services Exam - Prelims, Mains and Interview | State PSCs exams/ PCS exams - by M Laxmikanth
• Oswaal NCERT One For All Book for UPSC & State PSCs | Indian Polity Classes 6-12 - by Oswaal Editorial Board
• Bharat Ki Rajvyavastha (भारत की राजव्यवस्था) - M Laxmikanth for UPSC CSE